The Life of Yavuz Sultan Selim
The Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire - The Life of Sultan Selim I
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| Portrait of Sultan Selim I painted between 1789 and 1806 |
Early life
Sultan Selim I, also known as Yavuz , "the brave" (Yavuz is often incorrectly translated as the Grim) is arguably the most famous, and yet often misrepresented Ottoman Sultan. He is known for his incredible achievements - in the span of eight years, he accomplished what others could only dream to do in eighty. His successors glorified, admired and even envied him.
Yavuz Selim was one of the youngest sons born to Beyazid II and Ayse Hatun, the daughter of Alauddin Bozkurt Bey, in Amasya province on October 10th, 1470. He was a bright child, and his father assigned him special instructors. In the year 1480, Selim and his brothers were sent to the capitol for their circumcision ceremony, and they had the opportunity of staying for a month in Istanbul, in the presence of their grandfather, Sultan Fatih, Mehmet II. Although the stay was not long, according to the historian of the time, Ibn Kemal, it made a significant impact on the young Sehzade Selim, who was in awe of his grandfather.
The stay did not last long and aligning with Ottoman tradition, the older boys were appointed to their respective offices after the circumcision event - the younger boys were not sent off, and instead they remained with their father. However, soon after the visit to their grandfather, the news arrived of their grandfather's passing, and Beyazid II went to Istanbul to succeed him.
As Governor of Trabzon
When the time finally arrived, Shehzade Selim was appointed as the governor of Trabzon where he would distinguish himself from his brothers and the position provided him with a great deal of experience According to the archives, his appointment came in 1487 and he spent approximately 25 years of his life as Trabzon Sancak Bey.
During the reign of Beyazid II, Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty of Persia tried to restore his influence in the Ottoman territories of Eastern Anatolia. This caused significant turmoil and civil unrest, and posed a considerable threat to the eastern part of the Ottoman lands. In response to this, Beyazid II took to correspondence with the Shah, to no avail.
Shah Ismail conquered Baghdad in the winter of 1508 -1509, and his armies began massacring the Sunni population and destroying and desecrating the tombs and mosques in the region. Beyazid II, continued to side with correspondence over military action and asked Shah Ismail to cease his doings. The Sultan's threats had no effect on the Shah, and eventually Beyazid II sought aid from the Mamluks and Uzbek Turkomans. He ordered the Ottoman Anatolian army against the Sah Kulu the leader of the Safavid influence in the region, but they were defeated near Alasehir in June 1511. This prompted the Sultan's decision to send 8000 janissaries who eventually defeated Sah Kulu, while the remaining Safavid army fled back to Iran. Despite having been routed in Anatolia however, the Safavids remained a continuous and constant threat on the Eastern borders.
At home, things were made difficult by Sultan Beyazid's illness, and the rivalry between Sehzades Ahmet and Korkut, two of the Sultan's sons stationed as governors of Amasya and Antalya respectively. Sehzade Ahmet, Sultan Beyazid's eldest son, was a skilled administrator and was admired by his people, but unpopular with the army and the janissaries for the several defeats suffered under his leadership in Anatolia. Sehzade Korkut on the other hand was a favourite among the scholarly elite, for his vast knowledge and studious nature, however it was felt that he did not possess the military talent necessary as observed by those around him, during the Sah Kulu incidents.
Sehzade Selim had the support and admiration of the janissaries and several beys, particularly the border beys, as he was considered the most talented of the sons of Sultan Beyazid. However, his father and other statesmen did not share this view, and it was Sehzade Ahmet who was chosen to go to Amasya in 1507, an obvious show of favour. Sehzade Selim, meanwhile, had secured significant military support by leading the Ottoman armies in several campaigns in Anatolia and Georgia.
In April 25, 1512, the Janissaries finally forced Sultan Beyazid II to abdicate the throne on the grounds that Sehzade Selim would be the only one fit to tackle the Safavid threat.
The Reign of Sultan Selim 1512-1520
Civil Unrest
Yavuz Sultan Selim became Sultan on May 26th, 1512. He sought to restore his grandfather Fatih Sultan Mehmet's goal of establishing a vast empire, and his first action was to enlarge the janissary corps to 35,000 and increasing their salaries.
Sultan Selim faced considerable civil unrest when he took the throne: Not only was there the Safavid threat, but there was the matter of his brothers' challenges to the throne. He chose conciliation and cooperation in dealing with the matter of his brothers and the threat they posed to the stability of the state. Yavuz Selim offered Sehzade Korkut the governorship of Manisa, and his brother Ahmet, that of Konya - significant posts in the Ottoman state.
Unfortunately, not long after this, Sehzade Ahmet rebelled and declared himself Sultan and sent his son to take control of Bursa in June 1512 - declaring open war on Sehzade Selim and the Ottoman state. On June 18, Sehzade Ahmet's son Alaudin took Bursa. Sehzade Ahmet, with the aid of the Mamluks fought Sultan Selim, who defeated him and had him executed along with Sehzade Korkut who was found guilty of conspiring to rebel.
Yavuz Selim was one of the youngest sons born to Beyazid II and Ayse Hatun, the daughter of Alauddin Bozkurt Bey, in Amasya province on October 10th, 1470. He was a bright child, and his father assigned him special instructors. In the year 1480, Selim and his brothers were sent to the capitol for their circumcision ceremony, and they had the opportunity of staying for a month in Istanbul, in the presence of their grandfather, Sultan Fatih, Mehmet II. Although the stay was not long, according to the historian of the time, Ibn Kemal, it made a significant impact on the young Sehzade Selim, who was in awe of his grandfather.
The stay did not last long and aligning with Ottoman tradition, the older boys were appointed to their respective offices after the circumcision event - the younger boys were not sent off, and instead they remained with their father. However, soon after the visit to their grandfather, the news arrived of their grandfather's passing, and Beyazid II went to Istanbul to succeed him.
As Governor of Trabzon
When the time finally arrived, Shehzade Selim was appointed as the governor of Trabzon where he would distinguish himself from his brothers and the position provided him with a great deal of experience According to the archives, his appointment came in 1487 and he spent approximately 25 years of his life as Trabzon Sancak Bey.
During the reign of Beyazid II, Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty of Persia tried to restore his influence in the Ottoman territories of Eastern Anatolia. This caused significant turmoil and civil unrest, and posed a considerable threat to the eastern part of the Ottoman lands. In response to this, Beyazid II took to correspondence with the Shah, to no avail.
Shah Ismail conquered Baghdad in the winter of 1508 -1509, and his armies began massacring the Sunni population and destroying and desecrating the tombs and mosques in the region. Beyazid II, continued to side with correspondence over military action and asked Shah Ismail to cease his doings. The Sultan's threats had no effect on the Shah, and eventually Beyazid II sought aid from the Mamluks and Uzbek Turkomans. He ordered the Ottoman Anatolian army against the Sah Kulu the leader of the Safavid influence in the region, but they were defeated near Alasehir in June 1511. This prompted the Sultan's decision to send 8000 janissaries who eventually defeated Sah Kulu, while the remaining Safavid army fled back to Iran. Despite having been routed in Anatolia however, the Safavids remained a continuous and constant threat on the Eastern borders.
At home, things were made difficult by Sultan Beyazid's illness, and the rivalry between Sehzades Ahmet and Korkut, two of the Sultan's sons stationed as governors of Amasya and Antalya respectively. Sehzade Ahmet, Sultan Beyazid's eldest son, was a skilled administrator and was admired by his people, but unpopular with the army and the janissaries for the several defeats suffered under his leadership in Anatolia. Sehzade Korkut on the other hand was a favourite among the scholarly elite, for his vast knowledge and studious nature, however it was felt that he did not possess the military talent necessary as observed by those around him, during the Sah Kulu incidents.
Sehzade Selim had the support and admiration of the janissaries and several beys, particularly the border beys, as he was considered the most talented of the sons of Sultan Beyazid. However, his father and other statesmen did not share this view, and it was Sehzade Ahmet who was chosen to go to Amasya in 1507, an obvious show of favour. Sehzade Selim, meanwhile, had secured significant military support by leading the Ottoman armies in several campaigns in Anatolia and Georgia.
In April 25, 1512, the Janissaries finally forced Sultan Beyazid II to abdicate the throne on the grounds that Sehzade Selim would be the only one fit to tackle the Safavid threat.
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| Miniature of Sultan Selim I, by Seyyid Loman Celebi. 1562 |
The Reign of Sultan Selim 1512-1520
Civil Unrest
Yavuz Sultan Selim became Sultan on May 26th, 1512. He sought to restore his grandfather Fatih Sultan Mehmet's goal of establishing a vast empire, and his first action was to enlarge the janissary corps to 35,000 and increasing their salaries.
Sultan Selim faced considerable civil unrest when he took the throne: Not only was there the Safavid threat, but there was the matter of his brothers' challenges to the throne. He chose conciliation and cooperation in dealing with the matter of his brothers and the threat they posed to the stability of the state. Yavuz Selim offered Sehzade Korkut the governorship of Manisa, and his brother Ahmet, that of Konya - significant posts in the Ottoman state.
Unfortunately, not long after this, Sehzade Ahmet rebelled and declared himself Sultan and sent his son to take control of Bursa in June 1512 - declaring open war on Sehzade Selim and the Ottoman state. On June 18, Sehzade Ahmet's son Alaudin took Bursa. Sehzade Ahmet, with the aid of the Mamluks fought Sultan Selim, who defeated him and had him executed along with Sehzade Korkut who was found guilty of conspiring to rebel.
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| Miniature of Sultan Selim I in court |
The Safavids and Eastern Anatolia
"I had informed you of the things I am going to do to you from a few months in advance so that you may prepare yourself to stand against me, so that you do not end up saying that you were hunted unawares or say that you were not able to prepare.- Letter from Sultan Selim I to Shah Ismail of the Safavid Dynasty of Persia
I have not seen any action or movement from your side, despite the fact that I have openly been preparing and moving my forces brazenly, I have even come to the peak of Erzincan Mountain.
You are cowering in such a way that your presence or absence cannot be ascertained from one another. Whereas those who are on the path of the sword, shield themselves from calamities, and those who have fallen in love with being brave do not fear the arrow or the spear.
Only a person who does not become pale when kissing his sword may embrace the bride of government/nation. It would be a mistake to refer to someone who finds comfort in the shadows as a man. It is not suitable for one who is afraid of death to gird a sword or mount a horse.
If you are hiding due to the swelling numbers of my army, I have left forty thousand of my warriors behind, between Kayseri and Sivas. I do not think anyone can be so generous towards their enemy. As such, if you even have an ounce of honour, come and face me."
In August of 1514, Sultan Selim led the Ottoman army to victory against the Safavids in the famous battle of Caldiran. Shah Ismail fled, and Sultan Selim's army entered Tabriz, the Safavid Capital. For the first time, the Ottoman army took control of eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq from the Safavids.
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| The Battle of Caldiran, from the Selim-name. |
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| Depiction of Sultan Selim in battle |
In order to strengthen Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia, Sultan Selim organized a large new frontier province under the governorship of Biyikle Mehmet Pasa, who he placed as head of suppressing Safavid support and conquering the remaining areas of Anatolia which were not yet under Ottoman control.
The conquering of Eastern Anatolia provided the Ottoman state with strategic areas and enabled them to control both trade and access to those areas and destinations connecting to them. This provided specific benefits in the area of preventing Safavid silk trade to the West and the Mamluk's access to manpower in the Caucasus.
Internal Reforms
Under Sultan Selim's rule, there was significant growth in the devsirme - and he built a new school at Galata Saray for the training of new recruits. The completion of the move from Edirne to Topkapi was also done during his time.
Sultan Selim ordered the building of more ships in order to create a more powerful Ottoman naval fleet, and he ordered a new shipyard to be built in Golden Horn of Istanbul. By the end of his reign, the Ottoman naval fleet was more powerful than it had ever been before.
The Humble Hero
In response to all this, Selim sent aid to the Mamluks opposing the Portugese. The Ottomans provided guns, gunpowder, and naval supplies to the Mamluks in their fight against the Portugese. However, in 1516, as the Ottoman army moved through Anatolia on their way to Azerbaijan against the Safavids, the Mamluks moved their own armies across the Euphrates into Anatolia. This order by the Mamluk Qansuh al Ghawri was opposed by several leading Mamluk commanders who cautioned it would be an aggressive move, calling out to open war with the Ottomans. As a result, several leading Mamluk officials sent letters to Sultan Selim of their support if he chose to fight them.
Sultan Selim decided, after consulting with religious scholars and his advisors, that the Mamluk threat had to be dealt with. The Ottoman and Mamluk armies fought just north of Aleppo at Mercidabik, with the Mamluks suffering a terrible defeat. Sultan Selim gained Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and paved the way for the conquest of Egypt.
Sultan Selim corresponded with the new Mamluk Sultan, Qunsul al Ghawri's successor Tomanbey asking him to recognize to recognize Ottoman rule, but he refused and the Ottoman army marched on Egypt. Sultan Selim declared to the Egyptian peoples that his fight was with the Mamluks and that they would not be harmed. Egypt came under Ottoman rule on January 16, 1517, amazingly, despite the extreme difficulty in traversing the Sinai desert, which the Ottomans were able to do easily, with the aid of sudden rainy weather.
Upon Sultan Selim's conquest in Egypt, the Sherif of Mecca sent his son to deliver his allegiance, along with the gifts of some sacred trusts, including the keys to Mecca and the mantle and banner of the Holy Prophet. This was symbolic, as it was the official acknowledgement of Sultan Selim as the leader of the Muslim world and owner of the title of Caliph. Nevertheless, Sultan Selim was a humble man, and when the title of the "Ruler of the Holy Cities" was bestowed upon him, he declined and said he would rather be called the "Servant of the Holy Cities" instead and he donated 200,000 gold to the inhabitants of the two cities. His humbleness is further illustrated by his return to Istanbul - there was no pomp and ceremony or traditional victory parade - he returned quietly and discreetly to Topkapi Palace in the middle of night.
Upon Sultan Selim's return, he immediately had the Sacred Trusts which were given to him, housed in Topkapi Palace, and ordered the recitation of the Qur'an twenty four hours a day, every day. This was undertaken by forty reciters who had memorized the entire Qur'an, the fortieth being the Sultan himself.
His Death and Legacy
Sultan Selim had successfully accomplished much of what he set out to do - unify the Muslim world under Ottoman rule. He filled the empire's treasury to the brim, so much so that it could not all be housed in Topkapi palace - there was the revenue from the Spice road since, thanks to his military conquests, it now passed through Ottoman territory; the steady and ample gains of war, and the various tributes pouring in. This vast treasure would be what provided Suleyman, Selim's son with the means to further expand Ottoman territorial gains and dominion.
Sultan Selim ordered the preparation of the naval fleet for a new campaign after his return from Egypt, with the building of 250 new ships.
On July 18th, 1520, Yavuz Sultan Selim set out on a campaign from Istanbul to Edirne, his intentions and destinations kept secret. Prior to setting out, he had complained of some pain in his back, and upon arriving in the village of Sirt, he was unable to continue due to his back. He remained ill and his condition worsened until he died on September 21, 1520, from what historians suggest either cancerous growth, or anthrax.
Sultan Selim corresponded with the new Mamluk Sultan, Qunsul al Ghawri's successor Tomanbey asking him to recognize to recognize Ottoman rule, but he refused and the Ottoman army marched on Egypt. Sultan Selim declared to the Egyptian peoples that his fight was with the Mamluks and that they would not be harmed. Egypt came under Ottoman rule on January 16, 1517, amazingly, despite the extreme difficulty in traversing the Sinai desert, which the Ottomans were able to do easily, with the aid of sudden rainy weather.
Upon Sultan Selim's conquest in Egypt, the Sherif of Mecca sent his son to deliver his allegiance, along with the gifts of some sacred trusts, including the keys to Mecca and the mantle and banner of the Holy Prophet. This was symbolic, as it was the official acknowledgement of Sultan Selim as the leader of the Muslim world and owner of the title of Caliph. Nevertheless, Sultan Selim was a humble man, and when the title of the "Ruler of the Holy Cities" was bestowed upon him, he declined and said he would rather be called the "Servant of the Holy Cities" instead and he donated 200,000 gold to the inhabitants of the two cities. His humbleness is further illustrated by his return to Istanbul - there was no pomp and ceremony or traditional victory parade - he returned quietly and discreetly to Topkapi Palace in the middle of night.
Upon Sultan Selim's return, he immediately had the Sacred Trusts which were given to him, housed in Topkapi Palace, and ordered the recitation of the Qur'an twenty four hours a day, every day. This was undertaken by forty reciters who had memorized the entire Qur'an, the fortieth being the Sultan himself.
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| Depiction of Sultan Selim I on his deathbed from the Selim-name, Topkapi Palace Library |
His Death and Legacy
Sultan Selim had successfully accomplished much of what he set out to do - unify the Muslim world under Ottoman rule. He filled the empire's treasury to the brim, so much so that it could not all be housed in Topkapi palace - there was the revenue from the Spice road since, thanks to his military conquests, it now passed through Ottoman territory; the steady and ample gains of war, and the various tributes pouring in. This vast treasure would be what provided Suleyman, Selim's son with the means to further expand Ottoman territorial gains and dominion.
Sultan Selim ordered the preparation of the naval fleet for a new campaign after his return from Egypt, with the building of 250 new ships.
On July 18th, 1520, Yavuz Sultan Selim set out on a campaign from Istanbul to Edirne, his intentions and destinations kept secret. Prior to setting out, he had complained of some pain in his back, and upon arriving in the village of Sirt, he was unable to continue due to his back. He remained ill and his condition worsened until he died on September 21, 1520, from what historians suggest either cancerous growth, or anthrax.
Yavuz Sultan Selim slept very little, according to the historian Sadeddin Efendi, in his book The Crown of Annals, who states that Sultan Selim preferred to read and engage in scholarly conversation. He was also a very talented poet - he used to sign his work by his pen name Selimi.
Some examples of his poetry:
"My tears flew from my eyes like seas.
O friends! My unfortuned head saw a lot of things.
My eyebrow is a bridge made of one pillar and two holes in order for the soldiers of imagination to pass through the flood of my tears....Everybody says to me “This world is all yours”.I am an infidel if I even own a stone in it."
Anxiety about division and dispute within my people,Will discomfort me, even in the corner of my grave;Unified, we have the means to repulse the enemy;Disunited, the people cause me grievous pain.
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The Life of Kanunî Sultan Süleyman
The Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire - The Life of Kanunî Sultan Süleyman
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| Kanunî Sultan Süleyman depicted with his wife, Hürrem sultan |
Kanunî Sultan Süleyman is the most famous and longest-reigning Ottoman Sultan under whose rule the empire reached its zenith. Born on November 6, 1494, in the Black Sea coastal town of Trabzon, where his father, the future Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20), was prince-governor, Süleyman I is regarded as one of the most important rulers of Islam and of the world. He was born as the only son of Sultan Selim I, and he received a very good education from his childhood, focused on state and military administration, as well as the Islamic sciences, and was raised meticulously. At thirteen years old, he moved to Şebinkarahisar and to Bolu the following year where he was assigned to the post of governor of Kaffa. On September 30th, 1520, eight days after the sad news of his father's death reached him, he arrived in Istanbul and rose to the throne following the ascension ceremony in the Topkapı Palace.
Süleyman’s fame is due as much to his conquests in Europe and to the splendour of his court. He led his armies on 13 campaigns, spending most of his reign on campaigns. These brought Iraq (1534–35) and Hungary (1526, 1541) under Ottoman rule, threatened the Habsburg capital Vienna twice (1529, 1532); his victories at Rhodes in the eastern Aegean (1522) and at Preveza in northwestern Greece (1538) made the Ottomans masters of the eastern Mediterranean, leaving only Malta and Cyprus unconquered for the time being. The fact that he was a contemporary of Europe’s most illustrious monarchs also assured Süleyman’s reputation. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–56) was Süleyman’s chief antagonist with whom the Sultan engaged in an epic and exhausting rivalry for world supremacy. Francis I of France (r. 1515–47), “the most Catholic king of France” was Charles V’s archenemy and the Sultan’s ally. Süleyman’s victories were commemorated by lavishly illustrated chronicles, poem-books, festivities, and by the many masterpieces of Ottoman architecture. Known to Europeans as “the Magnificent”, to his subjects and to Muslims in general he was known as Kanuni (the Lawgiver), because it was under his rule that Sultanic (kanun) were compiled, systematized, and harmonized with Islamic law (Sharia).
Süleyman’s fame is due as much to his conquests in Europe and to the splendour of his court. He led his armies on 13 campaigns, spending most of his reign on campaigns. These brought Iraq (1534–35) and Hungary (1526, 1541) under Ottoman rule, threatened the Habsburg capital Vienna twice (1529, 1532); his victories at Rhodes in the eastern Aegean (1522) and at Preveza in northwestern Greece (1538) made the Ottomans masters of the eastern Mediterranean, leaving only Malta and Cyprus unconquered for the time being. The fact that he was a contemporary of Europe’s most illustrious monarchs also assured Süleyman’s reputation. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–56) was Süleyman’s chief antagonist with whom the Sultan engaged in an epic and exhausting rivalry for world supremacy. Francis I of France (r. 1515–47), “the most Catholic king of France” was Charles V’s archenemy and the Sultan’s ally. Süleyman’s victories were commemorated by lavishly illustrated chronicles, poem-books, festivities, and by the many masterpieces of Ottoman architecture. Known to Europeans as “the Magnificent”, to his subjects and to Muslims in general he was known as Kanuni (the Lawgiver), because it was under his rule that Sultanic (kanun) were compiled, systematized, and harmonized with Islamic law (Sharia).
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| An Ottoman miniature drawing of Sultan Süleyman |
Traditional historiography maintains that after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Sultans embarked upon a centralizing project, which resulted in the establishment of the “classical” absolutist Ottoman state, a patrimonial world empire, with its tenure system and centralized administration. Under Süleyman I the Ottoman central administration in Istanbul is said to have reached its perfection, increasing its control over the provinces and frontiers. Consequently, frontier societies and institutions became similar to those in the core territories of the Empire. Almost everything that one may read in general historical works on the Empire’s central and provincial administration, and on its army, economy, society, and culture, is limited to this one-hundred-year period. Western observers and scholars, from the 16th-century Italian politician and philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) to the Marxist historian Perry Anderson, have long focused on the idea of “Turkish despotism.” In recent research, the Ottomans emerge as pragmatic and flexible rulers who accepted local forms of taxation, monetary systems, and economic forms; compromised with and co-opted local elites into their military and bureaucratic systems; and adjusted their military according to new challenges.
Internal Reforms
Sultan Süleyman began his reign with a campaign to secure justice and virtue in order to gain for himself the loyalty of his subjects. Sultan Süleyman attempted to to build a system of justice and he placed new emphasis on the protection of the lives, property, and honour of individuals regardless of their religion.
One day after ascending to the throne, Sultan Süleyman decreed a ferman ordering that soldiers should pay for all provisions taken along their paths of their campaigns in Ottoman or enemy territory. Taxes were levied only according to the ability to pay. The system of courts previously established was enlarged, and additional police and inspectors were charged with seeing that the court decrees and the laws were obeyed.
Administration of the Empire was reorganized, dismissals only being issued for good reason, not due to the whims of the Sultan and the higher officials of state. Only merit was to be considered in the appointment or promotion of officials. Hundreds of legal scholars and jurists were brought into the service of the Sultan, and laws and law codes were issues that institutionalized and defined the structure of government as well as the rights and responsibilities of all members of the ruling class, as well as the subjects of the Sultan.
Internal Reforms
Sultan Süleyman began his reign with a campaign to secure justice and virtue in order to gain for himself the loyalty of his subjects. Sultan Süleyman attempted to to build a system of justice and he placed new emphasis on the protection of the lives, property, and honour of individuals regardless of their religion.
One day after ascending to the throne, Sultan Süleyman decreed a ferman ordering that soldiers should pay for all provisions taken along their paths of their campaigns in Ottoman or enemy territory. Taxes were levied only according to the ability to pay. The system of courts previously established was enlarged, and additional police and inspectors were charged with seeing that the court decrees and the laws were obeyed.
Administration of the Empire was reorganized, dismissals only being issued for good reason, not due to the whims of the Sultan and the higher officials of state. Only merit was to be considered in the appointment or promotion of officials. Hundreds of legal scholars and jurists were brought into the service of the Sultan, and laws and law codes were issues that institutionalized and defined the structure of government as well as the rights and responsibilities of all members of the ruling class, as well as the subjects of the Sultan.
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| The mosque of Rüstem Pasha in the main port district of Eminönü in Istanbul, is famous for its lavish Iznik ceramic decoration. Rüstem Pasha was one of the Grand Vizier of Süleyman I and the husband of Süleyman’s daughter Mihrimah. |
Europe
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| French King Francis I and Suleiman the Magnificient |
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| Distribution of rewards after the siege of Szigetvár |
As a result, Venice, Genoa, and Malta unified their forces on the Corfu island off the coast of Albania to end the Ottoman domination in the Mediterranean, establishing a remarkable crusader fleet. As a culmination of this tension, Andrea Doria, the imperial admiral of Charles V's naval forces captured Koroni, on the southwest side of the Morea from the Ottomans. In return, Sultan Süleyman assigned Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha, the famous Turkish admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya) as the imperial commander general of the Ottoman navy. Barbaros Pasha would quickly defeat the Charles V's holy league navy at the Battle of Preveza in 1538. Andrea Doria fled and barely saved his own life. The victory of Preveza sealed Ottoman sovereignty in the Mediterranean.
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| Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, the Kaptan-ı Derya (Captain of the Seas), defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza (1538) |
Iran and the Middle East
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| Sultan Süleyman's conquests were followed by continuous territorial expansion until the Empire's peak. |
The first expedition under the command of Hadım Süleyman Pasha in 1538 added Yemen, Aden, Sudan, and some tracts of Ethiopia to the Ottoman domains. The second naval expedition in 1551 under the command of Piri Reis brought about the conquest of Muscat in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula.
A Flourishing Empire and A Lasting Legacy
The conquests, cultural activities, and a civilization flourishing marked the forty-six year reign of Sultan Süleyman. His achievements - one of which is his incredible record of riding his horse for 30,000 miles - earned him the deserved title "the Magnificent", which was attributed to him in the West. A major shift of emphasis occurred in his political orientation toward Europe and the Mediterranean countries after the European economy was boosted by the age of discoveries in the 16th century. Sultan Süleyman was foresighted and acted diligently. He had a powerful army and kept a full treasury, and he led his people in many battles in the East and the West, and he died on the battlefield.
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| Tuğrâ (Imperial Seal) of Süleyman the Magnificent |
His reign also witnessed the zenith of the Ottoman arts and culture. Various imperial artistic societies, called the Community of the Talented (Ehl-i Hiref) were administered under his patronage. According the Ottoman archives, Sultan Süleyman personally inspected the works of artisans and rewarded them for their achievements.
During this period, developments occurred in both fine arts and decorative arts, especially in calligraphy, miniature painting, manuscript painting, gravures, ebru, wood and stone carving, ceramics, tiles and textiles.
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| Ottoman Sikke-i Hasene (Gold coins) minted in the year 1520 during the reign of Sultan Süleyman. |
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| The interior of the Süleymaniye Mosque, commissioned by Sultan Süleyman and built by Mimar Sinan. |
Sultan Süleyman decided to lead his army for the last time in the year 1566 against Ferdinand of Austria, who broke the peace agreement with the Ottomans by attacking the principality of Transylvania which was under Ottoman suzerainty. Despite his illness and age of seventy-two, Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmed Pasha convinced him to command the army in person on this campaign. The Ottoman army besieged the Fort of Szigetvár, and after about a month of following the siege from his deathbed, Sultan Süleyman passed away on September 7th, 1566. His death was kept a secret in an effort not to distract the Ottoman army. The fort was conquered following a thirty-four day siege and the march to Szigetvár turned out to be the last successful campaign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent.
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| A double-page Ottoman miniature painting depicting the funeral of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in the book (Süleymanname) that was written by the court historian Luqman at the behest of Suleyman's grandson, Murad III. |
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| The tomb of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, in Istanbul, Turkey. Picture taken in 1880. |
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Historical Letter from Yavuz Sultan Selim to Shah Ismail
Ottoman Sultans were master military commanders and strategists and were very adept at military mind-games. As students of the Enderun academy of the Topkapi Palace, the Sultans grew up learning from the most elite military commanders about warfare and military strategy. It is easy to understand then, how they were able to command 22 million square kilometres of land for generations. They masterfully set their enemies against one another with their political prowess, strength, and intellect.
Some examples of this can be seen through the following quotes:
- English Admiral Lord John Fisher describes Sultan Abdülhamid Han II as being the "Most skillful and quick thinking diplomat in all of Europe"
- German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck has described Sultan Abdülhamid Han II as having the highest amount of intellect in Europe: "Of all the intelligence in Europe, 90% is in Abdulhamid, 5% in myself, and 5% in everyone else"
- German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II has stated that "I have learned the game of politics from Abdulhamid"
"I had informed you of the things I am going to do to you from a few months in advance so that you may prepare yourself to stand against me, so that you do not end up saying that you were hunted unawares or say that you were not able to prepare.
I have not seen any action or movement from your side, despite the fact that I have openly been preparing and moving my forces brazenly, I have even come to the peak of Erzincan Mountain.
You are cowering in such a way that your presence or absence cannot be ascertained from one another. Whereas those who are on the path of the sword, shield themselves from calamities, and those who have fallen in love with being brave do not fear the arrow or the spear.
Only a person who does not become pale when kissing his sword may embrace the bride of government/nation. It would be a mistake to refer to someone who finds comfort in the shadows as a man. It is not suitable for one who is afraid of death to gird a sword or mount a horse.
If you are hiding due to the swelling numbers of my army, I have left forty thousand of my warriors behind, between Kayseri and Sivas. I do not think anyone can be so generous towards their enemy. As such, if you even have an ounce of honour, come and face me."
#OttomanMilitaryProwess
#OttomanMilitaryMindGames
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Work Ethics and Manners in the Ottoman Bazaar
The bazaar started out as a place where primarily groceries would be sold, but with time, more valuable items such as jewelry, porcelain, silk fabrics, and weapons would be sold in the bazaar as well. As such, the bazaars needed to be strong and covered, and were usually constructed of stone to prevent against fires, just like the famous Grand Bazaar of Istanbul.
One of the most important aspects of being a merchant was to care for your neighbouring business owner. Merchants would be polite and cordial with one another, and would be sensitive enough to be aware of whether or not their neighbouring merchant had made any opening sales for the day. If they had not, merchants would send customers over to their neighbours so that all business owners in the bazaar would feel content early on in the day that they started their sales successfully.
The bazaar would operate between dawn and would close at sunset, in keeping mind security, and the serenity of family life. Shops would close down temporarily throughout the day whenever the call for prayer (adhan) would be heard from the minarets in the city, and business would resume as the merchants returned from the mosques, as soon as the congregation prayer was completed.
One important function of the Sultan, as Caliph of Islam, would be to regularly inspect the quality of goods being sold and mannerisms of the merchants in the bazaar. As such, he would regularly dress in disguise, blending himself into the rest of society, and would roam the streets of the empire and bazaar areas to audit and review the state of affairs of business places, which ensured that merchants were always on their best behaviour, and treating their customers with the highest amount of respect. All Ottoman Sultans and Grand Viziers took this aspect of their office very seriously to ensure that order and peace were kept in Ottoman society (known as Nizam-ı Alem).
Before the stores would open, business owners would congregate meet each other at the mosque and pray the morning prayer (fajr), and would then make their way to what was known as the 'prayer dome' in the bazaar. One of the business owners would be chosen to pray to Allâh for righteousness and success; they would then take their daily oath of promising to remain upright in character and in sales.
The aforementioned daily prayer that was made by the merchants can be found below:
"I seek refuge in Allâh from the accursed Satan
In the name of Allâh:
Glory be to Allâh, praise be to Allâh; Allâh the Lord of the universe to whom we send our prayers and praise;
May the greetings of Allah be upon the Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be upon him), on his family, and his companions, his ummah (nation), and upon our beloved people...
Oh Allâh, the Exalted and Sublime! We ask of you to not shame or depress those sellers and buyers who have come from near and far. Allow them to be happy and fortunate...
Allow for the customers to benefit and attain peace from the goods they purchase, and allow for the income of our merchants to be halal (pure, permissible) and plenty, and allow for the purchaser and seller to be satisfied and delighted with one another...
Oh Allâh, protect us from every type of difficulty and distress, sorrow and illness, from falling into scarcity and insufficient livelihood, from pride and arrogance, from cheating people and from being cheated!
Allow us to embody patience, courage, justice and fortitude in our every action. Make us have the best morals and virtues... And in all of our business dealings, keep us honest, loyal and content with what we have oh my Lord!
We take refuge in you, oh Allâh, from a weak heart, from prayers that are not answered, from knowledge that is not beneficial, from helplessness and laziness, from fear and greed, from wasting and poverty, and from damage and loss!
Oh Allâh, protect us from any calamity, evil, disaster or misfortune that may come from any direction, from the sky or the ground, whether it be from outside or within... Oh Allâh protect our beautiful city, our honourable people, our heavenly country, our eternal Empire, our brave soldiers and security forces, our generation and our offspring!
We beg you to accept our prayers, oh Allah... Ameen! Wal Hamdu Lillahi Rabbil Alamin (And all the praises be to Allâh, the Lord of the worlds).
Surah Fatiha, the opening chapter of the Holy Qur'an would then be recited by all merchants who were present."
#OttomanHighManners
#UthmaniAdab
The Disbandment of the Janissary Corps (Yeniçeri Ocağı)
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| A Painting Depicting the Conquest of Istanbul by Fatih Sultan Mehmet and his Janissary Soldiers |
On June 15th, 1826, the Janissary corps (Yeniçeri Ocağı) was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II Hân, and was replaced by the regimented army known as Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye (The Victorious Soldiers of [the Prophet] Muhammad). This event became known as the The Auspicious Incident (Vakâ-i Hayriye).
las_-_Sultan_Mahmud_II_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg) | |
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The Sultan had been preparing the way to eliminate the Janissary corps for some time, as they were averse to military modernization and were firmly set in their ways, and would sometimes rebel against the state. Sultan Mahmud II appointed his own men to key positions in the corps, and worked to get the support of the Ulema (religious officials of the Empire), whose cooperation with the Janissaries had doomed many previous reform attempts. All through the winter and spring of 1826, the Sultan met with his close advisers to formulate strategies and make final plans for reforms. While some proposed establishing modern military units within the Janissary corps itself, the Ağa (Commander) of the Janissaries Hüseyin countered this with the argument that it would be impossible to get the cooperation of the lesser corps officers, and that suppression of the corps was the only solution.
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| An Ottoman Miniature Painting Depicting a Janissary Soldier Loading his Rifle |
The Rebels Start to Plot
Unfortunately, however, the Janissaries who had agreed to support the Sultan actually ended up working secretly to organize an uprising to destroy the new Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye force before it could get started. On the night of June 14th, 1826, the Janissaries began to revolt. Groups of rebels scattered throughout the city and started to sack homes of supporters of the Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye force.
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| Janissaries Marching |
The Janissary Revolt and the Auspicious Incident
In response to the rebellion, the Grand Vizier summoned the loyal troops and asked leading members of the government and Ulema to gather at the Topkapi Palace in support of the Sultan, who himself had summarily rejected the demands of the rebels. The standard (flag) of the Prophet Muhammad was unfurled as a motivational tool, and agents were sent throughout the city to urge the faithful Muslims to join the attack against the rebel Janissaries. The Janissaries were forced to withdraw to their barracks at Et Meydani did not stand a chance against the superior numbers. The corps was abolished the following day, on June 15th, 1826. Some of the remaining members of the Janissaries throughout the Empire were given the opportunity to join the new Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye force, whereas the remaining Janissaries were simply absorbed into the general population.
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| Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye Calvary on the Galata Bridge in Istanbul |
Sultan Mahmud II's disbandment of the Janissaries, called the Auspicious Incident, was an event of major importance in Ottoman history, as for the first time in the history of the Empire, reform had been undertaken by destroying an old institution, which allowed for a new institution to function without being hindered by obsolete practices.
The end of the Janissary corps, which had been the pioneering regular infantry of the early modern world, marked the end of an era. While the Janissary corps were the most effective military force for several hundreds of years, their resistance to modernize and accept newer military technologies unfortunately eventually led to their downfall.
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| Greco-Turkish War of 1897, also called the Thirty Days' War |
History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey | Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw
A Military History of the Ottomans | Mesut Uyar and Edward J. Erickson
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