The Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire - The Life of Sultan Selim I
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| Portrait of Sultan Selim I painted between 1789 and 1806 |
Early life
Sultan Selim I, also known as Yavuz , "the brave" (Yavuz is often incorrectly translated as the Grim) is arguably the most famous, and yet often misrepresented Ottoman Sultan. He is known for his incredible achievements - in the span of eight years, he accomplished what others could only dream to do in eighty. His successors glorified, admired and even envied him.
Yavuz Selim was one of the youngest sons born to Beyazid II and Ayse Hatun, the daughter of Alauddin Bozkurt Bey, in Amasya province on October 10th, 1470. He was a bright child, and his father assigned him special instructors. In the year 1480, Selim and his brothers were sent to the capitol for their circumcision ceremony, and they had the opportunity of staying for a month in Istanbul, in the presence of their grandfather, Sultan Fatih, Mehmet II. Although the stay was not long, according to the historian of the time, Ibn Kemal, it made a significant impact on the young Sehzade Selim, who was in awe of his grandfather.
The stay did not last long and aligning with Ottoman tradition, the older boys were appointed to their respective offices after the circumcision event - the younger boys were not sent off, and instead they remained with their father. However, soon after the visit to their grandfather, the news arrived of their grandfather's passing, and Beyazid II went to Istanbul to succeed him.
As Governor of Trabzon
When the time finally arrived, Shehzade Selim was appointed as the governor of Trabzon where he would distinguish himself from his brothers and the position provided him with a great deal of experience According to the archives, his appointment came in 1487 and he spent approximately 25 years of his life as Trabzon Sancak Bey.
During the reign of Beyazid II, Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty of Persia tried to restore his influence in the Ottoman territories of Eastern Anatolia. This caused significant turmoil and civil unrest, and posed a considerable threat to the eastern part of the Ottoman lands. In response to this, Beyazid II took to correspondence with the Shah, to no avail.
Shah Ismail conquered Baghdad in the winter of 1508 -1509, and his armies began massacring the Sunni population and destroying and desecrating the tombs and mosques in the region. Beyazid II, continued to side with correspondence over military action and asked Shah Ismail to cease his doings. The Sultan's threats had no effect on the Shah, and eventually Beyazid II sought aid from the Mamluks and Uzbek Turkomans. He ordered the Ottoman Anatolian army against the Sah Kulu the leader of the Safavid influence in the region, but they were defeated near Alasehir in June 1511. This prompted the Sultan's decision to send 8000 janissaries who eventually defeated Sah Kulu, while the remaining Safavid army fled back to Iran. Despite having been routed in Anatolia however, the Safavids remained a continuous and constant threat on the Eastern borders.
At home, things were made difficult by Sultan Beyazid's illness, and the rivalry between Sehzades Ahmet and Korkut, two of the Sultan's sons stationed as governors of Amasya and Antalya respectively. Sehzade Ahmet, Sultan Beyazid's eldest son, was a skilled administrator and was admired by his people, but unpopular with the army and the janissaries for the several defeats suffered under his leadership in Anatolia. Sehzade Korkut on the other hand was a favourite among the scholarly elite, for his vast knowledge and studious nature, however it was felt that he did not possess the military talent necessary as observed by those around him, during the Sah Kulu incidents.
Sehzade Selim had the support and admiration of the janissaries and several beys, particularly the border beys, as he was considered the most talented of the sons of Sultan Beyazid. However, his father and other statesmen did not share this view, and it was Sehzade Ahmet who was chosen to go to Amasya in 1507, an obvious show of favour. Sehzade Selim, meanwhile, had secured significant military support by leading the Ottoman armies in several campaigns in Anatolia and Georgia.
In April 25, 1512, the Janissaries finally forced Sultan Beyazid II to abdicate the throne on the grounds that Sehzade Selim would be the only one fit to tackle the Safavid threat.
The Reign of Sultan Selim 1512-1520
Civil Unrest
Yavuz Sultan Selim became Sultan on May 26th, 1512. He sought to restore his grandfather Fatih Sultan Mehmet's goal of establishing a vast empire, and his first action was to enlarge the janissary corps to 35,000 and increasing their salaries.
Sultan Selim faced considerable civil unrest when he took the throne: Not only was there the Safavid threat, but there was the matter of his brothers' challenges to the throne. He chose conciliation and cooperation in dealing with the matter of his brothers and the threat they posed to the stability of the state. Yavuz Selim offered Sehzade Korkut the governorship of Manisa, and his brother Ahmet, that of Konya - significant posts in the Ottoman state.
Unfortunately, not long after this, Sehzade Ahmet rebelled and declared himself Sultan and sent his son to take control of Bursa in June 1512 - declaring open war on Sehzade Selim and the Ottoman state. On June 18, Sehzade Ahmet's son Alaudin took Bursa. Sehzade Ahmet, with the aid of the Mamluks fought Sultan Selim, who defeated him and had him executed along with Sehzade Korkut who was found guilty of conspiring to rebel.
Yavuz Selim was one of the youngest sons born to Beyazid II and Ayse Hatun, the daughter of Alauddin Bozkurt Bey, in Amasya province on October 10th, 1470. He was a bright child, and his father assigned him special instructors. In the year 1480, Selim and his brothers were sent to the capitol for their circumcision ceremony, and they had the opportunity of staying for a month in Istanbul, in the presence of their grandfather, Sultan Fatih, Mehmet II. Although the stay was not long, according to the historian of the time, Ibn Kemal, it made a significant impact on the young Sehzade Selim, who was in awe of his grandfather.
The stay did not last long and aligning with Ottoman tradition, the older boys were appointed to their respective offices after the circumcision event - the younger boys were not sent off, and instead they remained with their father. However, soon after the visit to their grandfather, the news arrived of their grandfather's passing, and Beyazid II went to Istanbul to succeed him.
As Governor of Trabzon
When the time finally arrived, Shehzade Selim was appointed as the governor of Trabzon where he would distinguish himself from his brothers and the position provided him with a great deal of experience According to the archives, his appointment came in 1487 and he spent approximately 25 years of his life as Trabzon Sancak Bey.
During the reign of Beyazid II, Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty of Persia tried to restore his influence in the Ottoman territories of Eastern Anatolia. This caused significant turmoil and civil unrest, and posed a considerable threat to the eastern part of the Ottoman lands. In response to this, Beyazid II took to correspondence with the Shah, to no avail.
Shah Ismail conquered Baghdad in the winter of 1508 -1509, and his armies began massacring the Sunni population and destroying and desecrating the tombs and mosques in the region. Beyazid II, continued to side with correspondence over military action and asked Shah Ismail to cease his doings. The Sultan's threats had no effect on the Shah, and eventually Beyazid II sought aid from the Mamluks and Uzbek Turkomans. He ordered the Ottoman Anatolian army against the Sah Kulu the leader of the Safavid influence in the region, but they were defeated near Alasehir in June 1511. This prompted the Sultan's decision to send 8000 janissaries who eventually defeated Sah Kulu, while the remaining Safavid army fled back to Iran. Despite having been routed in Anatolia however, the Safavids remained a continuous and constant threat on the Eastern borders.
At home, things were made difficult by Sultan Beyazid's illness, and the rivalry between Sehzades Ahmet and Korkut, two of the Sultan's sons stationed as governors of Amasya and Antalya respectively. Sehzade Ahmet, Sultan Beyazid's eldest son, was a skilled administrator and was admired by his people, but unpopular with the army and the janissaries for the several defeats suffered under his leadership in Anatolia. Sehzade Korkut on the other hand was a favourite among the scholarly elite, for his vast knowledge and studious nature, however it was felt that he did not possess the military talent necessary as observed by those around him, during the Sah Kulu incidents.
Sehzade Selim had the support and admiration of the janissaries and several beys, particularly the border beys, as he was considered the most talented of the sons of Sultan Beyazid. However, his father and other statesmen did not share this view, and it was Sehzade Ahmet who was chosen to go to Amasya in 1507, an obvious show of favour. Sehzade Selim, meanwhile, had secured significant military support by leading the Ottoman armies in several campaigns in Anatolia and Georgia.
In April 25, 1512, the Janissaries finally forced Sultan Beyazid II to abdicate the throne on the grounds that Sehzade Selim would be the only one fit to tackle the Safavid threat.
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| Miniature of Sultan Selim I, by Seyyid Loman Celebi. 1562 |
The Reign of Sultan Selim 1512-1520
Civil Unrest
Yavuz Sultan Selim became Sultan on May 26th, 1512. He sought to restore his grandfather Fatih Sultan Mehmet's goal of establishing a vast empire, and his first action was to enlarge the janissary corps to 35,000 and increasing their salaries.
Sultan Selim faced considerable civil unrest when he took the throne: Not only was there the Safavid threat, but there was the matter of his brothers' challenges to the throne. He chose conciliation and cooperation in dealing with the matter of his brothers and the threat they posed to the stability of the state. Yavuz Selim offered Sehzade Korkut the governorship of Manisa, and his brother Ahmet, that of Konya - significant posts in the Ottoman state.
Unfortunately, not long after this, Sehzade Ahmet rebelled and declared himself Sultan and sent his son to take control of Bursa in June 1512 - declaring open war on Sehzade Selim and the Ottoman state. On June 18, Sehzade Ahmet's son Alaudin took Bursa. Sehzade Ahmet, with the aid of the Mamluks fought Sultan Selim, who defeated him and had him executed along with Sehzade Korkut who was found guilty of conspiring to rebel.
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| Miniature of Sultan Selim I in court |
The Safavids and Eastern Anatolia
"I had informed you of the things I am going to do to you from a few months in advance so that you may prepare yourself to stand against me, so that you do not end up saying that you were hunted unawares or say that you were not able to prepare.- Letter from Sultan Selim I to Shah Ismail of the Safavid Dynasty of Persia
I have not seen any action or movement from your side, despite the fact that I have openly been preparing and moving my forces brazenly, I have even come to the peak of Erzincan Mountain.
You are cowering in such a way that your presence or absence cannot be ascertained from one another. Whereas those who are on the path of the sword, shield themselves from calamities, and those who have fallen in love with being brave do not fear the arrow or the spear.
Only a person who does not become pale when kissing his sword may embrace the bride of government/nation. It would be a mistake to refer to someone who finds comfort in the shadows as a man. It is not suitable for one who is afraid of death to gird a sword or mount a horse.
If you are hiding due to the swelling numbers of my army, I have left forty thousand of my warriors behind, between Kayseri and Sivas. I do not think anyone can be so generous towards their enemy. As such, if you even have an ounce of honour, come and face me."
In August of 1514, Sultan Selim led the Ottoman army to victory against the Safavids in the famous battle of Caldiran. Shah Ismail fled, and Sultan Selim's army entered Tabriz, the Safavid Capital. For the first time, the Ottoman army took control of eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq from the Safavids.
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| The Battle of Caldiran, from the Selim-name. |
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| Depiction of Sultan Selim in battle |
In order to strengthen Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia, Sultan Selim organized a large new frontier province under the governorship of Biyikle Mehmet Pasa, who he placed as head of suppressing Safavid support and conquering the remaining areas of Anatolia which were not yet under Ottoman control.
The conquering of Eastern Anatolia provided the Ottoman state with strategic areas and enabled them to control both trade and access to those areas and destinations connecting to them. This provided specific benefits in the area of preventing Safavid silk trade to the West and the Mamluk's access to manpower in the Caucasus.
Internal Reforms
Under Sultan Selim's rule, there was significant growth in the devsirme - and he built a new school at Galata Saray for the training of new recruits. The completion of the move from Edirne to Topkapi was also done during his time.
Sultan Selim ordered the building of more ships in order to create a more powerful Ottoman naval fleet, and he ordered a new shipyard to be built in Golden Horn of Istanbul. By the end of his reign, the Ottoman naval fleet was more powerful than it had ever been before.
The Humble Hero
In response to all this, Selim sent aid to the Mamluks opposing the Portugese. The Ottomans provided guns, gunpowder, and naval supplies to the Mamluks in their fight against the Portugese. However, in 1516, as the Ottoman army moved through Anatolia on their way to Azerbaijan against the Safavids, the Mamluks moved their own armies across the Euphrates into Anatolia. This order by the Mamluk Qansuh al Ghawri was opposed by several leading Mamluk commanders who cautioned it would be an aggressive move, calling out to open war with the Ottomans. As a result, several leading Mamluk officials sent letters to Sultan Selim of their support if he chose to fight them.
Sultan Selim decided, after consulting with religious scholars and his advisors, that the Mamluk threat had to be dealt with. The Ottoman and Mamluk armies fought just north of Aleppo at Mercidabik, with the Mamluks suffering a terrible defeat. Sultan Selim gained Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and paved the way for the conquest of Egypt.
Sultan Selim corresponded with the new Mamluk Sultan, Qunsul al Ghawri's successor Tomanbey asking him to recognize to recognize Ottoman rule, but he refused and the Ottoman army marched on Egypt. Sultan Selim declared to the Egyptian peoples that his fight was with the Mamluks and that they would not be harmed. Egypt came under Ottoman rule on January 16, 1517, amazingly, despite the extreme difficulty in traversing the Sinai desert, which the Ottomans were able to do easily, with the aid of sudden rainy weather.
Upon Sultan Selim's conquest in Egypt, the Sherif of Mecca sent his son to deliver his allegiance, along with the gifts of some sacred trusts, including the keys to Mecca and the mantle and banner of the Holy Prophet. This was symbolic, as it was the official acknowledgement of Sultan Selim as the leader of the Muslim world and owner of the title of Caliph. Nevertheless, Sultan Selim was a humble man, and when the title of the "Ruler of the Holy Cities" was bestowed upon him, he declined and said he would rather be called the "Servant of the Holy Cities" instead and he donated 200,000 gold to the inhabitants of the two cities. His humbleness is further illustrated by his return to Istanbul - there was no pomp and ceremony or traditional victory parade - he returned quietly and discreetly to Topkapi Palace in the middle of night.
Upon Sultan Selim's return, he immediately had the Sacred Trusts which were given to him, housed in Topkapi Palace, and ordered the recitation of the Qur'an twenty four hours a day, every day. This was undertaken by forty reciters who had memorized the entire Qur'an, the fortieth being the Sultan himself.
His Death and Legacy
Sultan Selim had successfully accomplished much of what he set out to do - unify the Muslim world under Ottoman rule. He filled the empire's treasury to the brim, so much so that it could not all be housed in Topkapi palace - there was the revenue from the Spice road since, thanks to his military conquests, it now passed through Ottoman territory; the steady and ample gains of war, and the various tributes pouring in. This vast treasure would be what provided Suleyman, Selim's son with the means to further expand Ottoman territorial gains and dominion.
Sultan Selim ordered the preparation of the naval fleet for a new campaign after his return from Egypt, with the building of 250 new ships.
On July 18th, 1520, Yavuz Sultan Selim set out on a campaign from Istanbul to Edirne, his intentions and destinations kept secret. Prior to setting out, he had complained of some pain in his back, and upon arriving in the village of Sirt, he was unable to continue due to his back. He remained ill and his condition worsened until he died on September 21, 1520, from what historians suggest either cancerous growth, or anthrax.
Sultan Selim corresponded with the new Mamluk Sultan, Qunsul al Ghawri's successor Tomanbey asking him to recognize to recognize Ottoman rule, but he refused and the Ottoman army marched on Egypt. Sultan Selim declared to the Egyptian peoples that his fight was with the Mamluks and that they would not be harmed. Egypt came under Ottoman rule on January 16, 1517, amazingly, despite the extreme difficulty in traversing the Sinai desert, which the Ottomans were able to do easily, with the aid of sudden rainy weather.
Upon Sultan Selim's conquest in Egypt, the Sherif of Mecca sent his son to deliver his allegiance, along with the gifts of some sacred trusts, including the keys to Mecca and the mantle and banner of the Holy Prophet. This was symbolic, as it was the official acknowledgement of Sultan Selim as the leader of the Muslim world and owner of the title of Caliph. Nevertheless, Sultan Selim was a humble man, and when the title of the "Ruler of the Holy Cities" was bestowed upon him, he declined and said he would rather be called the "Servant of the Holy Cities" instead and he donated 200,000 gold to the inhabitants of the two cities. His humbleness is further illustrated by his return to Istanbul - there was no pomp and ceremony or traditional victory parade - he returned quietly and discreetly to Topkapi Palace in the middle of night.
Upon Sultan Selim's return, he immediately had the Sacred Trusts which were given to him, housed in Topkapi Palace, and ordered the recitation of the Qur'an twenty four hours a day, every day. This was undertaken by forty reciters who had memorized the entire Qur'an, the fortieth being the Sultan himself.
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| Depiction of Sultan Selim I on his deathbed from the Selim-name, Topkapi Palace Library |
His Death and Legacy
Sultan Selim had successfully accomplished much of what he set out to do - unify the Muslim world under Ottoman rule. He filled the empire's treasury to the brim, so much so that it could not all be housed in Topkapi palace - there was the revenue from the Spice road since, thanks to his military conquests, it now passed through Ottoman territory; the steady and ample gains of war, and the various tributes pouring in. This vast treasure would be what provided Suleyman, Selim's son with the means to further expand Ottoman territorial gains and dominion.
Sultan Selim ordered the preparation of the naval fleet for a new campaign after his return from Egypt, with the building of 250 new ships.
On July 18th, 1520, Yavuz Sultan Selim set out on a campaign from Istanbul to Edirne, his intentions and destinations kept secret. Prior to setting out, he had complained of some pain in his back, and upon arriving in the village of Sirt, he was unable to continue due to his back. He remained ill and his condition worsened until he died on September 21, 1520, from what historians suggest either cancerous growth, or anthrax.
Yavuz Sultan Selim slept very little, according to the historian Sadeddin Efendi, in his book The Crown of Annals, who states that Sultan Selim preferred to read and engage in scholarly conversation. He was also a very talented poet - he used to sign his work by his pen name Selimi.
Some examples of his poetry:
"My tears flew from my eyes like seas.
O friends! My unfortuned head saw a lot of things.
My eyebrow is a bridge made of one pillar and two holes in order for the soldiers of imagination to pass through the flood of my tears....Everybody says to me “This world is all yours”.I am an infidel if I even own a stone in it."
Anxiety about division and dispute within my people,Will discomfort me, even in the corner of my grave;Unified, we have the means to repulse the enemy;Disunited, the people cause me grievous pain.
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thank you for information. it is very useful for me.and my name is yavuz selim.first time i learned sultan selim's life .i am learned by you. i proud this
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